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紅肉

本页使用了标题或全文手工转换
维基百科，自由的百科全书
即使豬肉可呈白色或粉紅色，但仍屬红肉
呈深褐色的英式燒牛肉

在營養學上，红肉是從哺乳動物身上獲取的肉类，像是牛肉、豬肉、绵羊肉、小牛肉、鹿肉、山羊肉[1][2][3]。红肉不一定是紅色[4]。红肉在日常烹饪上多指未經烹煮時呈現紅色的肉類[5]。

红肉含蛋白質、鐵質、鋅、維生素B1、B2、B6、B12等多種營養成分[6]。国际癌症研究机构把未經加工的紅肉視為「對人類很可能有致癌性」，尤其可能是結腸直腸癌的風險因子[7]。多項研究顯示红肉與心血管疾病及2型糖尿病的患病風險增加有關[8][9]。若它經過鹽漬、醃製、煙燻等過程加工處理，健康風險則進一步增加[7]。世界癌症研究基金會建議每週攝入的紅肉不應超過三份（烹煮後約350克至500克的紅肉）[3]。

定義

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肌紅蛋白濃度（以質量百分比表示）
種類 肌紅蛋白 美國農業部分類
熟成牛肉 1.50 – 2.00%[10] 紅肉[11]
牛肉 0.40 – 1.00%[10] 紅肉[11]
豬肉 0.10 – 0.30%[10] 紅肉[11]
小牛肉 0.10 – 0.30%[10] 紅肉[11]
火雞腿肉 0.25 – 0.30%[10] 深色肉
雞腿肉 0.18 – 0.20%[10] 深色肉
火雞胸肉 0.008%[12] 白肉
雞胸肉 0.005%[10] 白肉[11]
呈红色的鸭肉。即使如此，營養學研究一般不會把禽肉視作紅肉

在營養學上，紅肉是從哺乳動物身上獲取的畜肉，像是牛肉、豬肉、绵羊肉、小牛肉、鹿肉、山羊肉[1][2][3]。一些來源更把红肉的定义收窄至從牠們肌肉獲取的畜肉，把從內臟獲取的畜肉排除在外[1][13]。紅肉不一定是紅色[4]。

红肉在日常烹饪上多指未經烹煮時呈現紅色的肉類[5]，如從成年或「野生」哺乳動物身上獲取的肉類。而從幼年哺乳動物身上獲取的畜肉（如兔肉、小牛肉、小羊肉）則為白色。大多禽肉呈白色[14]。野味有時會自成一類[15]。肉類的红色源自肌红蛋白[16]。

某些豬肉部位在美食學上會歸作白肉，但在營養學上，所有豬肉都是紅肉。美國豬肉協會（英语：National Pork Board）曾把部分豬肉稱為「另一種白肉」，以此塑造健康的形象[17][18]。

鴕鳥肉、鸸鹋肉、美洲鸵肉有時被歸類作紅肉或「紅肉替代品」[19][20]。但它們的營養成分跟營養學上的紅肉有很大分別[20]。

營養

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紅肉含大量的鐵質、肌酸、礦物質（如锌和磷）、維生素B（烟酸、维生素B12、硫胺、核黄素）[21]。

紅肉含少量维生素D[22]。當中又以肝臟等下水部分為高[23]。

對健康的影響

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一般而言，食用大量紅肉及加工肉類的膳食模式跟出現肥胖及全因死亡的風險增加有關[24]: 86 [25][26]，此外它亦跟2型糖尿病、心血管疾病、癌症（特別是大腸癌）的患病風險增加有關[27][28][29][30]。大量且一致的流行病學數據顯示，紅肉及加工肉類跟2型糖尿病、心血管疾病、癌症存在上述關係[29]。適量食用可減少貧血風險[24]: 86 。不過，紅肉並非維持人體每日所需營養的必需品，而且把每週食用份量限制至約350克至500克以下都不會顯著增加缺铁的非純素成年人比例[31]。

培根、火腿、香腸等加工肉類與上述健康風險的關係尤其明顯。此類製品為增強風味或延長保存期限，而經鹽漬、醃製、發酵、煙燻等過程處理[32]。

由於倫理、資金、實際操作方面的問題，故沒有長期随机对照试验來研究食用紅肉跟各類疾病之間的關係[33][29]。大多有關紅肉與健康的關係的數據源自長期流行病學研究[29][34]。

癌症

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2015年，国际癌症研究机构把未經加工的紅肉列為二A类致癌物，即「對人類很可能有致癌性」[35]。在此之前，它評估了逾800項流行病学研究，亦審視各項使用動物來作試驗的研究[36]。在評估它對人類是否具致癌性時，則缺乏随机对照试验[37]: 16 。

国际癌症研究机构工作小組發現「有限」的流行病學證據證實未經加工的紅肉跟大腸癌、胰臟癌、前列腺癌有關[37]: 501 。此外，「有力的机理证据」显示它具致癌性[37]: 499 。 机理证据指某種物質可致癌的合理生物途徑之證據[37]: 23–24 。例如研究發現若參與者在測試前的一段短時間內食用紅肉，那麼他們的腸道與糞便便會檢測出較高水平的致癌性物質N-亞硝基化合物[37]: 470 

加工紅肉的致癌性證據更強。国际癌症研究机构認定加工肉類是「一类致癌物」，因為「充分證據證明食用加工肉類會導致人類患上大腸癌」[35]。

美国癌症研究协会、英国癌症研究基金会、世界癌症研究基金會支持上述結論[38][39][40]。2023年至2024年的兩篇系統性回顧兼元分析顯示，大量食用紅肉跟胃肠道癌患病風險增加有關[41][42]。另外已有证据显示，摄入红肉可能增加罹患胰腺癌、胃癌、子宫内膜癌、肺癌、膀胱癌的风险[43][44][45][46][47]。世界癌症研究基金會建議每周攝入的紅肉不超過三份（烹煮後約350克至500克的紅肉），其中“加工红肉应尽可能少”[31]。

具體風險

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根據国际癌症研究机构的總結，若未經加工的紅肉具致癌性，那麼日均食用多100克的紅肉，便會增加17%罹患大腸癌的风險[35]；加工紅肉日均食用多50克，則增加18%的风險[35]。 2021年的雨傘型文獻回顧發現，日均食用多100克紅肉，罹患各種癌症的風險就會增加11–51%；日均食用多50克加工肉類，則增加8-72%[48]。

致病機制

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紅肉的血基質鐵與結腸直腸癌患病風險增加有關[49]。美國癌症研究協會和世界癌症研究基金會表示：「紅肉含有高水平的血基質鐵。研究證實它能促進人體產生致癌性物質N-亞硝基化合物，誘使結腸直腸發生瘤變」[34]。N-羟乙酰神经氨酸（英语：N-Glycolylneuraminic acid）（Neu5Gc）亦可能參與了上述過程[50][51][52] 。

紅肉經高溫烹調後常會變深色

2017年的文獻回顧指出，紅肉含有多種結腸直腸的潛在致癌物，比如N-亞硝基化合物、多環芳香烴（PAHs）、多環胺類（HCAs）[53]。採用「煎烤或直接在明火上燒烤等高溫烹調方式」烹煮肉類，同樣會令它產生PAHs和HCAs[54]

心血管疾病

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食用紅肉跟冠狀動脈疾病、高血壓、中風的風險增加有關[55][56]。紅肉當中的飽和脂肪跟血脂、低密度脂蛋白、三酸甘油酯水平增加有關；此外血基質鐵可能誘使脑部动脉粥样硬化，導致中風[57]。

2020年，澳大利亚国家心脏基金会（英语：National Heart Foundation of New Zealand）專家營養政策组發表了一份官方声明，當中表示食用大量紅肉會增加16%的心臟病和中風風險[55][58]。

糖尿病

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食用大量加工或非加工紅肉是各族群罹患2型糖尿病的風險因子[59][60][61]。

2017年的文獻回顧發現，歐美裔人士的紅肉及加工紅肉日均食用量若分別達到85克和35克，二型糖尿病的患病風險則會增加18%至36%；而戒除紅肉，把重心放在全穀物、蔬菜、水果、乳製品的膳食模式跟糖尿病患病風險下降81%有關[62]。另一項元分析估計「每日以一份堅果、低脂乳製品、全穀物替代一份紅肉，與二型糖尿病患病風險下降16–35%有關」[63]。2022的雨傘型文獻回顧結論道，每日食用多100克紅肉與二型糖尿病的患病風險增加17%相關[64]。

炎症性肠病

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大量食用紅肉及加工肉跟炎症性肠病的患病風險增加有關[65][66]。美国胃肠病学会（英语：American Gastroenterological Association）表示，限制紅肉及加工肉攝取的膳食模式可能減少溃疡性结肠炎的惡化機會或程度[67]。

肉類產業贊助的研究

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2025年的回顧發現，多項得到肉類產業贊助的研究以「食用紅肉會對心血管健康產生正面（20.7%）或中性（79.3%）的影響」作結。這一結論與多項獨立研究結果相違——後者的結論多為「食用紅肉會對心血管健康產生負面（73.3%）或中性（26.7%）的影響」[68]。它最後總結道「大多跟肉類產業不存在利益衝突的研究顯示，未經加工的紅肉對心血管疾病的風險因子存在不利影響」[68]。

營餐指引

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世界癌症研究基金會建議每週攝入的紅肉不應超過三份[3]。

2011年，美國農業部發表營餐指引MyPlate（英语：MyPlate），當中沒有把肉類具體細分，但建議每週至少吃8盎司（230克）魚肉[69][70]。2011年，哈佛大學公共衛生學院部分為回應美國農業部指引的潛在不足，而發表營餐指引「健康飲食餐盤」[69]。它建議人們盡量避免吃加工肉類，每週吃紅肉不超過兩次，因為它們跟心臟病、糖尿病、大腸癌有關。它還建議以豆類、禽肉、魚肉、堅果取代上述兩者[69]。

澳大利亚国家心脏基金会建議，人們每週不應食用超過350克紅肉，以植物蛋白取代肉類[55][58]。

歐洲糖尿病研究學會（英语：European Association for the Study of Diabetes）建議糖尿病患者應盡量避免食用紅肉[71]。

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